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How many of you are dog people? A show of hands. Excellent!
在座有多少爱狗人士？请举一下手。很好！
How about cat people? OK, you guys can go to the break early.
那么爱猫人士呢？好的，你们可以先去休息了。
So, of the dog people and the cat people who want to be dog people,
那么，在所有的爱狗人士和想成为爱狗人士的爱猫人士中，
how many of you have thought, "Wouldn't it be great to know what my dog is thinking?"
有多少人有过这样的想法：“要是能知道我家狗是怎么想的就好了？”
I think everyone else already knows what their dog is thinking, right?
其他人都已经知道自己的狗有什么想法了，是吧？
I got into this project, and I'm going to tell you a little bit about how...
我参与了这个项目，我会告诉大家一些关于怎样...
This is basically a stupid dog trick story.
这其实就是个很傻的训狗小故事。
It really started with this dog named Newton, who was really my favorite dog.
故事起源于这只叫做牛顿的狗，它是我最喜欢的狗。
I've had many dogs through my life, but Newton was my favorite, and he lived to be about 15 years old.
我一生中养过很多只狗，但牛顿是我的最爱，它活到了15岁。
After he passed away, I thought, I have these tools, this MRI machine,
它去世了之后，我想，我有工具啊，我有核磁共振的机器，
that I have been using for decades to study human decision making and what motivates people,
几十年来我一直用它研究人类下决定的行为以及激励人们的因素，
why haven't we used this on other animals?
为什么我们没有把这个用在别的动物身上过呢？
Certainly, other animals have many of the same feelings and motivations that people do.
当然，别的动物有很多跟人类一样的感觉和目的。
But this is kind of an area of science that people don't like to talk about.
但这个领域人们并不爱提起。
So I embarked on this project about four years ago
于是4年前我开始了这个项目，
to try to figure out what dogs think, and specifically what dogs think of us.
想弄明白狗的想法，特别是狗对我们人类的想法。
If we're talking about humans, we have kind of two ways we can think about what other people are thinking:
如果我们谈的是人类，我想我们有两种方式可以弄明白别人的想法，
we can either ask them, and sometimes they will tell us if they know, and they want us to know what they are thinking;
一是直接问，有时如果他们知道答案他们会告诉我们，他们也想让我们知道他们的想法；
or we can observe actions, we can observe behaviors,
二是观察他们的动作，观察他们的行为，
we can try to infer things about what people are thinking from their actions.
我们可以从他们的所作所为中推断他们的想法。
With animals, and dogs, of course, we can't really ask them.
对于狗或者其他的动物，我们当然没办法直接问。
We can ask them, and we may think that they tell us, but we really don't know what they're thinking.
我们问了，可能我们以为它们回答了，但我们还是不知道它们在想什么。
So we're kind of left with their behaviors: we can observe their actions, and we can try to infer what they are thinking.
那剩下的办法就是观察行为：我们可以观察它们的行为，然后推测它们的想法。
This is the foundation of behaviorism, and it's been around since Pavlov.
这是行为学的基础，从巴普洛夫那里传来的。
But there are, of course, very tricky issues here, and humans being humans, we tend to anthropomorphize everything.
但是这里有个非常吊诡的问题，人类自己作为人类，就倾向于把一切都人格化。
It's kind of in this area
正是在这个领域，
that I became very interested in intrigued with the possibility of trying to figure out what dogs are thinking by using MRI.
我对用核磁共振来研究狗的想法的可能性产生了浓厚的兴趣。
The technique is straightforward. It's been around for decades.
技术在向前发展。已经大约有几十年了。
The idea is: if we were studying a human, we would put a human in an MRI, have them do some type of task,
我们的想法是：如果要研究一个人，就把它放进做核磁共振的机器里面，让他们完成几种动作，
and we'd measure blood flow or brain activity and then try to figure out what parts of the brain do what.
然后测血流量和大脑活动情况，从而弄明白大脑的哪个部分是什么功能。
Very straightforward, if you've had an MRI, it's not terribly pleasant, but people will do it.
很直截了当，如果你做过核磁共振就知道，这感觉并不太好，但人们还是会做。
How do we do this with other animals? How do we do it with a dog?
那么在别的动物身上怎么操作呢？在狗身上怎么操作呢？
I'm going to show you what we found.
请大家看看我们的发现。
Here's a short video. It's a what we call our training video, and it demonstrates how we did this.
这是一段短视频。我们叫它训练视频，它演示了我们的具体做法。
Before I start it, you're going to see two dogs in this video.
开始之前，你们会看见视频里有两只狗。
The first dog, Callie, is my dog.
第一只叫嘉莉，是我的狗。
She was actually the replacement for Newton.
她实际上是牛顿的替代品。
She was adopted here in Atlanta from the Humane Society.
我是从亚特兰大动物保护协会收养的。
We loved Newton so much; we could never get another pug, so Callie is the anti-pug.
我们很爱牛顿，所以没有办法再养一只狮子狗，所以嘉莉是来对抗对牛顿的思念。
The other dog is McKenzie, a border collie. We just kind of get right into it.
另一只是麦肯锡，是一只边境牧羊犬。视频好像刚好放到她。
I'll narrate as we go along.
我们边看边说。
This's Mark Spivak. He's my partner in this endeavor, he's a dog trainer.
这位是马克·斯皮瓦克。他是我的实验搭档，也是一名训狗师。
The first thing that we had to do is figure out how do we get dogs to go into a tube,
我们要做的第一件事情，就是弄清楚怎样才能让狗走进这个通道，
to put a head coil around their head to pick up the brain waves, and hold absolutely still.
让头部线圈绕着它的头，好让我们捕捉到脑电波，并且让狗保持静止。
What you are seeing here, is that Callie is not a particularly obedient dog; she has no particularly special skills.
可以看见，嘉莉并不十分温顺，她也不会什么特技。
But she does have one very good trait, and that is: she likes hot dogs.
但她有一点很好，那就是她很爱热狗。
Mark is doing what we call clicker training.
麦克在做的这个我们叫它响片训练。
Every time she approximates what we want her to do, he clicks, and then she gets a hot dog.
每次当她快做到我们让她做的事的时候，马克会弄出响声，嘉莉会得到一只热狗。
This's the very first time she's been introduced to the thing we call the head coil,
这是她第一次见我们称之为头部线圈的这个东西，
and we didn't know at this point whether this was even going to be possible.
这时候甚至我们都不知道这样会不会有效。
This dog, McKenzie, a border collie, is highly trained.
这只名叫麦肯锡的边境牧羊犬受过很好的训练。
She's very skilled in agility, and her owner, as you'll see, gets her to sit in this coil very quickly.
她的敏捷性很强，正如你看见的，她的主人很快让她走进了线圈。
Good girl! Yes! Is she too far out now?
真棒！她现在的距离会太远吗？
Yeah, basically, we are looking for the brain case to be in the center, right there. That's good.
有点，我们希望让她的头放在线圈中间，就是那。很好。
If you've had an MRI, you know that you're told not to move, right?
如果你做过核磁共振，你就知道医生会告诉你不要动，对吧？
This is the big challenge of doing this.
这就是我们面临的巨大挑战。
Up until this point, I didn't know if this was going to be possible until I saw this.
到这时，我还是不知道可不可以成功，直到看见这个。
This was literally after about five minutes of training.
这真的是五分钟训练之后的效果。
When I saw that, I knew we could do this.
我一看见就知道肯定可以成功。
What you saw McKenzie doing was close but not quite good enough.
可以看见麦肯锡已经很接近我们的要求了，但还是不够好。
What we are going after if we're to achieve data that compares to humans...
我们的目的是，如果要拿到可以和人脑相比的数据...
You are perfect! Excellent! Perfect job!
你太棒了！厉害！完美！
Mark told me I had to be more demonstrative than I am normally. Perfect! Yes!
马克告诉我，我必须要比平时更外露情感。完美！是的！
What you notice we did was we introduced a little chin rest
可以注意到我们加了一个小的下颌垫进去，
because we have to give the dogs a target to put their head on.
因为我们必须给狗一个目标，让它们把头靠上去。
McKenzie adapts this very quickly. She's actually in a simulator for an MRI that we built.
麦肯锡适应地很快。她现在实际上是在我们仿照核磁共振仪器建的一个模拟器里面。
She's doing quite well, but this is actually still too much movement.
她表现得很好，但是动作还是太多了。
The really difficult part of this is the noise that the scanner makes, playing in the background.
有个很麻烦的点在于扫描仪有噪音，背景音可以听出来。
These are recordings that we made to acclimate the dogs to the training. It's very loud.
这些都是我们训练狗适应机器的录像。噪音很大。
This's being played at low volume just to get her used to it.
这还是为了让狗适应放的低音量。
But it's really about 95 decibels, and it's like jackhammer loud.
但实际音量有95分贝，跟手提钻的噪音差不多。
That's it, that what we are doing!
没错，就是这样！
This is after about a month or two of training. We're at the real MRI now.
这是训练了一两个月之后。我们现在用上了真的核磁共振仪。
This's probably the most expensive training session ever performed.
这可能是有史以来最昂贵的训练课程。
We get charged about 500 dollars an hour to use the MRI.
为了用这个机器，我们一小时要花费500美元。
But we had to use the real thing at a certain point.
但到了时间我们必需要用真正的仪器。
At this point, we didn't even know how they would react to the magnetic field.
现在我们还不知道她们对磁场有什么反应。
The key thing I want you to notice is these dogs are doing it willingly, and they enjoy it.
我想让你们关注到的重点是这些狗是自愿参与实验的，她们很享受这个过程。
That is the whole point of this project.
这是这个项目的核心。
We treat these animals as family members.
我们把她们当作家庭成员来看待。
We don't sedate them, and we don't restrain them.
我们没有给她们打镇定剂，也没有约束她们。
This's actually after about two months of training.
这是训练两个月后。
We made some modifications to the chin rest, and even a shelter dog like Callie can do this.
我们对下颌垫做了一些修改，这样即使是嘉莉这样领养的狗也可以安静下来。
If you look carefully, you also notice that she's wearing ear muffs.
如果你看的足够仔细，你会注意到它还戴着耳罩。
It's very important because the scanner is so loud, and the dogs hearing is quite sensitive.
这一点很重要，因为扫描仪声音很大，而狗的耳朵对声音很敏感。
The other thing that we did... This's a scientific experiment, really.
我们还...这真的是科学实验。
That's the training video.
这就是全部的训练视频。
The "hot dog, no hot dog" hand signals, we started with this because we didn't know if this was going to work,
我们采用“有热狗和没有热狗”这样的手势信号，是因为我们也不知道这样有没有用，
so we decided we needed to do something really simple.
于是我们决定做点简单的实验。
This's just straight up Pavlovian conditioning where we taught the dogs two hand signals:
很符合巴普洛夫设定的实验条件，我们教了狗两个手势信号：
this means "hot dog," and this means "no hot dog."
这是有热狗，这是没有热狗。
If this technique works,
如果生效的话，
what we should see is activity in the reward system of their brain to this hand signal but not this signal.
我们应该可以看见狗的大脑中负责奖励系统的部分会对这个信号有反应，而不是这个信号。
I also put up a slide here.
我放了一张幻灯片在这里。
Once we started doing this,
我们开始之后，
the word got out amongst the community here in Atlanta that we're doing this crazy dog scanning project.
消息在亚特兰大的社区传开了，大家都知道我们要做一个疯狂的扫描狗的实验。
We're looking for volunteers, especially people who like to train dogs and have dogs that are very well behaved.
我们还在寻找志愿者，特别是需要那些喜欢训练狗和家里有训练好的狗的人。
That's still true. If you have a dog that can do this or you think can do this, talk to me.
这个还是有效的。如果你家的狗满足以上要求或者你认为自己可以训练狗，请联系我。
Because the project is still going on, and it's gotten quite large.
因为这个项目还在继续，并且项目很大。
You've seen the kind of preliminary video.
你们已经看过了初步训练的视频。
This's one of my favorite photos because it's kind of captures
这是我最喜欢的一张照片，因为它是抓拍的，
this is the first day we were actually doing the scanning.
这是我们开始做扫描的第一天。
It captures the human confusion here.
它拍出了人们的困惑。
We were just standing around trying to figure out how we are going to do this.
我们站在一起讨论接下来怎么做。
But Callie knows, she's been trained, she's been doing this for two months; so she's ready to go.
但嘉莉知道，她已经接受过训练，两个月来她一直在做这件事，所以已经准备好了。
The head wrap is just to keep the ear muffs in place.
包裹住头部是为了让耳罩不移位。
This is what it look likes from the other end, from the business end of the scanner.
从另一端的扫描仪看是这样的，从扫描仪锐利的一头。
This's actually a dog named Zen. He's a yellow lab golden retriever.
这只狗叫泽恩。他是一只金毛猎犬。
What we're studying initially is just the reward system response.
我们最初要研究的是狗的奖励系统做出的回应。
Very simply, we got these two hand signals, and the idea is we compare the brain response to these two things.
实验很简单，我们做了两个手势信号，然后对比大脑对两个信号的反应。
As I said, we have many dogs doing this now, it's not just shelter dogs.
我前面说过，我们有很多只狗正在这样做，并不只是从收容所领养的狗。
We have dogs from service dog organizations, we have shelter dogs -- really all sorts of breeds.
有些来自服务犬机构，有些是收容所的狗，真的各种品种都有。
Before I show you some of the results, I do want to say something about brain anatomy.
在告诉大家结果之前，我想先讲讲大脑解剖。
A dog brain -- this slide is not to scale.
狗的大脑--这张图不是用来对比的。
A dog brain is probably about the size of a plum or a lemon maybe, depending on the size of the dog.
狗的大脑的大小跟李子或者柠檬的大小差不多，具体取决于狗的体型。
It's not big, even if you have a big dog, most of the head is muscle, so just going to be aware of that.
这只狗不大，即使你的狗体型很大，它的头部大部分也是肌肉，这点先明确一下。
But I like putting up this slide because it shows the similarities of animal brains.
但我喜欢放这张幻灯片，是因为它展示了动物大脑的相似性。
You can immediately make out common structures.
你可以很快地看出二者的共同结构。
You can see towards the right that kind of pretty structure is the cerebellum
我们可以看见靠右边的那个美丽的结构就是小脑，
that controls various types of motor movement, and then below that, there is the brainstem.
它控制着各种各样的运动，在它下面是脑干。
The really the parts of the brain that are different are what we call the cortex.
不同的部分是我们所谓的大脑皮层。
That's the upper part, the folded part.
就是上面那块的褶皱部分。
The big differences between dog and human have to do with the size of the cortex and how folded it is.
人脑和狗脑最大的不同就在于大脑皮层的大小和褶皱程度。
What folding accomplishes is packing a lot more brain surface area into a specific volume.
褶皱的作用就是把大脑表面的区域折叠到一起。
Generally speaking, the more folded a brain, the more surface area, the more brain power, if you will.
一般说来，褶皱越多，大脑表面面积越大，脑力越强，如果你想的话。
There are lot of similarities, and there are some differences.
这二者有很多相似点，也有很多不同点。
What I am particularly interested in are the similarities.
我尤其感兴趣的就是相似点。
Because if we were to have a commonality of experience with dogs, and other animals for that matter,
因为如果我们想要跟狗或者其他动物有同样的感受，
we have to share the same or similar brain structures.
我们的大脑结构就必须相同或者相似。
Darwin said this 150 years ago. What do the results look like?
这是达尔文150年前说的。结果如何呢？
This's a very compact way of summarizing an experiment which I showed you
这是个非常综合的展示实验结果的方式，
where the dogs receive two different hand signals, and we've averaged the results over, in this case, 12 dogs,
在狗接收到两种不同信号的实验中，我们把12只狗的结果进行了平均，
I think though, we've done this probably in over 20 dogs.
尽管这个实验我们在20多只狗身上都做过。
The orange areas show what parts of the brain are more active to this reward signal, this hot dog signal.
橘色表示的是该块区域对有热狗这个奖励信息表现得更活跃。
What I want to emphasize is the brain response is not directly to hot dogs, it's to the hand signal that means hot dogs.
我想强调的是，大脑的这个反应不是针对热狗，而是表示有热狗的这个手势。
You may think that's not a big deal; it's still hot dogs.
可能你觉得这个结论也没什么大不了的，不就是热狗嘛。
It's no surprise that dogs like hot dogs.
狗喜欢吃热狗有什么了不起的。
But it is a big deal because we train this signal;
但其实它很重要，因为这是我们训练的成果，
it's a symbolic representation of a hot dog that the dog has learned and has learned to recognize this meaning.
狗知道了它是有热狗的象征，他还学会并学着识别了它的意思。
The particular parts of the brain that are being active are the reward system.
它大脑中活跃的那部分就是奖励系统。
There's kind of two hot spots. There's a headlight type picture.
上面有两个点。这是头灯类型图。
That's in an area of the brain called the cortex nucleus.
它在大脑一个叫做皮质核的区域里。
It's the area of the brain that all mammals have, and it's the area that has the most dopamine receptors in the brain.
这一部分所有哺乳动物的大脑中都有，这块区域的多巴胺受体最多。
It's kind of the key center that links reward and motivation with action.
它是把奖励和动力连结起来的关键位置。
Normally, when that's active in a human or any other animal,
通常，当人或者其他动物的这一部分活跃的时候，
it means that something important has happened, and the animal needs to do something.
就意味着大事发生了，动物需要做些什么。
In this case it's quite simple because they will just eat the hot dogs.
在我们的实验中就很简单了，因为她们吃掉热狗就好了。
Well, so what? So we proved that dog brains like hot dogs.
那又怎样呢？我们证明了狗的大脑喜欢热狗啊。
That was just the beginning.
这只是开始而已。
This started about four years ago, and we've since gone on and done many other experiments.
这个实验开始于4年前，随后我们做了很多其他的实验。
Most of the dogs in these pictures, are still working with us in the project.
图中的这些狗大部分都还在参与我们的项目。
We've done things looking at how their olfaction, or their sensory system for smell works,
我们还做了实验，研究他们的嗅觉系统，或者说负责闻味儿的感官系统是怎么工作的，
how they identify different people, and other dogs in their household by smell.
他们怎么认出不同的人，以及如何通过气味分辨进入家门的其他的狗。
One of the things that we found is that this reward system,
关于大脑的奖励系统，我们发现的一件事是，
the same part of the brain activates when the dogs smell a familiar human, even if the human is not there.
当闻到熟悉的人的气味的时候，他们也会变得活跃，即使这个人不在现场。
It shows that dogs have representations of us of our identities that persist when we are not there.
这表明即使我们不在现场，狗的大脑中仍然有对我们的印象。
When people ask me, "Do dogs miss us when we are gone?"
当人们问我：“我们走了之后，狗会想我们吗？”
I have to say yes because we find evidence that they are remembering their humans,
我回答是的，因为证据显示，他们记得人类，
that they care about them, and that it's associated with these reward responses.
他们记得他们的关心，这和他们的奖励回应系统是相联的。
Is it still just hot dogs? To answer this question,
他们想到的还是热狗吗？为了回答这个问题，
one of the other things that we did was we actually repeated the experiment I showed you,
我们做了另一件事，那就是重复了之前展示过的那个实验，
where we show the different hand signals.
用了不同的手势信号。
With one little twist: we manipulate who gives the signals.
只改变了一点：我们改变了打信号的人。
Does it matter if the dog's owner gives a signal?
如果给出信号的是狗主人会怎样？
Or whether a stranger comes in and gives the signal?
或者如果来了一个陌生人给出这个信号呢？
Or even whether a computer gives the signal?
或者给出信号的是电脑呢？
Because if you believe Pavlov, and all the behaviorist who followed him, it really shouldn't matter,
因为如果你相信巴普洛夫和所有追随他的行为学家们，这不应该是干扰因素，
because any signal that indicates an upcoming food treat is all the same, if animals and dogs are just kind of robots.
因为如果人类和狗都是机器人的话，那所有分发食物的信号应该都是一样的。
But in fact, we did find a difference.
但实际上我们找到了不同。
What's very interesting about it is that not all dogs are the same.
很有意思的是并不是所有狗都一样。
For example, my dog Callie had a much greater response in that part of the brain
比如，我的狗狗嘉莉脑中的那部分反应会更强烈，
when a stranger gave the signals or even a computer as opposed to me!
当它看见陌生人或是电脑给出的信号而不是我给出的信号！
Other dogs in the project, some of the golden retrievers in the labs can have had the opposite pattern,
项目中其他的狗，比如实验室中的有些金毛猎犬，它们的反应完全相反，
where their owners had really elicited the strongest brain response.
他们的主人会在他们的大脑中引起最强的反应。
This is very interesting because what it does is it provides us with a neural biomarker of the dog's personality profile.
这就很有意思了，因为这给我们提供了一个关于狗的性格的生物标记。
In fact, what we've done is we've spun off a new project which we're very excited about.
实际上，我们所做的不过是为我们感兴趣的东西开创了一个项目而已。
We've partnered with Canine Companions for Independence,
我们还跟Canine Companions for Independence合作，
which is the largest service dog training organization in the United States.
它是美国最大的服务犬训练机构。
If you know anything about service dogs, they're incredibly difficult to train.
如果你听说过服务犬，你可能知道它们很难训练。
It's very expensive, and there's a very low success rate.
过程非常昂贵，成功率很低。
Roughly about 35% of dogs that enter these programs to train to be assistance dogs will succeed;
送进这个机构训练的狗大约只有35%可以成功，
the other 2/3 end up being released and adopted to their puppy raisers.
剩下的三分之二要么被放走，要么被收养。
So we've partnered with CCI, and they're actually training their dogs to do the MRI procedure.
于是我们跟CCI合作，他们也训练狗狗来参加核磁共振的实验。
What we're going to do is try to predict which of those dogs will actually be good service dogs.
我们要做的就是判断哪些狗可以成为好的服务犬。
I really love this project because it shows that even though we started this just as my silly example
我很喜欢这个项目，因为它原本源自我的一个荒唐的想法，
of trying to understand what my dogs think, and whether they love me, it's actually gotten much bigger.
想知道我的狗在想什么，它喜不喜欢我，结果这个项目越做越大。
Dogs are special. They're the first domesticated animals.
狗很特别。他们是最先被人类驯养的动物。
They have been with humans since humans have been humans.
自从有人类开始，他们就陪在我们身边。
When we look at their brains, it's almost like we are looking back in time,
当看着他们的大脑的时候，就像我们在回望过去，
and it's giving us a picture of how the dog-human bond formed. Thank you.
我们能看见人类与狗之间的联系是怎样建立的。谢谢大家。
